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Illustration: Stephen Case

Just before the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, Francis Fukuyama pronounced humanity to have reached “the end of history”, with Western liberal democracy triumphant as “the final form of human government”.

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In the years since, leading scholars such as the late Thomas Franck, Anne-Marie Slaughter and Georg Nolte (now a judge of the International Court of Justice) argued that there was an emerging right in international law to democratic governance, that liberal internationalism was universally applicable to states, and that states which did not subscribe to liberal democracy should have their membership in international organisations revoked.

Opinions of non-Western scholars were frequently dismissed or denigrated as subversive, dangerous, biased, apologist, distorted, irrational or uninformed, while those of their Western counterparts were “universally” lauded as sound, objective and authentic.

Fast forward 30 years, democracy in Hong Kong has been quashed. Ukraine, an aspiring democracy suffering rampant corruption (vividly portrayed in comedian-turned-war-hero President Volodymyr Zelensky’s Servant of the People), is in ruins for turning West instead of East. Russia’s President Vladimir Putin has put his nuclear arsenal on “higher alert”. End of history, or end of humanity?

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Amid talk of nuclear Armageddon, there is a “war” raging in Western liberal democracies and places a little bit less liberal or democratic alike. And it is in this war where lines between a Western liberal democracy and an Eastern non-liberal non-democracy become blurred.
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